Mental health (MH) does not only mean the mere absence of psychiatric disorders but also the presence of well-being. Competitive athletes are exposed to risk factors for poor MH specific to the competitive sport context. One such risk factor are athletic career transitions, whereby the junior-to-senior-level transition (JST) is considered one of the most difficult of within career transitions. During this time, developmental changes must be mastered on a psychological, athletic, and educational level and conflicts that occur between the different areas of life, such as school, family, and sports can become more acute. JST is thus a particularly vulnerable period for the MH of competitive sport athletes. In this article, we describe a counseling approach that seems well suited to promote the MH of JST athletes within a sport psychology consulting setting. The approach is based on self-determination theory and ego-state theory. We illustrate the application of our counseling approach with an exemplary case. Finally, we provide recommendations for how sport psychology practitioners can promote MH in JST athletes
Mindfulness and acceptance are core concepts of the third wave of cognitive and behavioral psychotherapies. Their aim is not to overpower thoughts and emotions by suppression and using control techniques but to change the relationships with them. This article focuses on mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches in sports. It briefly outlines these approaches and concludes that they are characterized by promoting three processes, which are present-moment attention, metacognitive awareness, and acceptance. Subsequently, the paper describes one approach particularly suitable for sports in detail—Acceptance and Commitment Therapy—with a special focus on how athletes can promote psychological flexibility and thrive in their effort to perform. This paper further addresses the question of whether mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches are effective in sports by summarizing research from the past five years in the form of a mini-review. Findings from 19 reviewed studies, including 15 controlled or randomized controlled studies, suggest that different athlete populations can benefit from mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches in terms of athletic performance and well-being. Positive effects on performance and well-being could be mediated by other psychological processes, e.g., enhanced emotion regulation. Further research is needed, especially regarding the mechanisms that impact mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions in sports.
The right balance between stress and recovery is important to improve an athlete’s performance (e.g., super compensation) and prevent overtraining and injuries. Although there are a number of objective (e.g., physiological or biochemical) indicators for the stress-recovery balance, they are outperformed by subjective indicators (i.e., self-reports on strain and recovery). In the present paper, a six-item inventory to monitor physical and mental strain and recovery in sports is presented. Based on empirical findings, and experiences from sport psychological practice in different sports, we discuss the pros and cons of self-report monitoring tools. On a more general level, we give advice on how and when to use such monitoring tools. In addition, we describe how different settings (e.g., monitoring during a whole season vs. monitoring before important competitions, like the Olympic Games) and samples (team vs. individual sports) might affect how such a monitoring tool is used and on what factors a successful application might depend. Finally, we offer guidelines on how to respond to unexpected monitoring results, ranging from clarifying discussions between athletes and (athletic) coaches to sport psychological consultations.
Introduction Non-functional overreaching (NFOR) and overtraining syndrome (OTS) are highly feared phenomena in competitive sports. Research has suggested the multifactorial aetiology of NFOR/OTS and causes, symptoms and consequences are almost identical with the ones of adjustment disorder (AD). Additionally, mindfulness and acceptance based approaches and their stress-buffering role have been shown to be effective in the treatment of AD. This contribution aims to explore the stress-buffering effect of habitual mindfulness on the development of overtraining states viewed as a sport-specific form of AD. Methodology 580 athletes (women=320; men=260; Mage=21.3) from 6 different sports completed a17-item survey about underperformance and symptoms of NFOR/OTS in their past career and the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experience. Athletes were classified as NFOR/OTS or no-overreaching (NO)/functional overreaching (FOR) according to the overtraining definition of the ECSS. Data were analysed using logistic regression and ANOVA. Results NO/FOR athletes revealed significantly higher habitual mindfulness values in present moment awareness, acceptance and metacognitive awareness than athletes classified as NFOR/OTS. Logistic and multinomial regression suggested that especially acceptance might have an influence on the buffering effect on the development of NFOR/OTS. An enhancement of 1 unit in acceptance reduces the risk of being in the NFOR/OTS group by 55%. Discussion Although OTS and AD are multi-causal phenomena, habitual mindfulness seems to have a buffering influence on the development of these maladaptive psychological processes. In this context, the process of acceptance seems to play a significant role. Nevertheless, the role of present-moment awareness and meta-cognitive awareness should be further investigated.
The goal of acceptance commitment therapy (ACT) is to help people to enhance their psychological flexibility in order to bring them closer to living a valued life. Generally, the world of elite sport is very outcome oriented and living a valued life means for many athletes to strive for performance and prove their ability in competition. In many sports, participation and success at the Olympic Games is considered the pinnacle of an athletic career. Accordingly, the cancellation or postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games has unsettled many athletes and put them under stress in various forms and to varying degrees. Psychological flexibility has never been more in demand than in these days of global pandemic with the uncertainties of canceled competitions, postponed selections and the uncertainty about the feasibility of newly announced competition calendars. The value system of many athletes and their acceptance of what is in consciousness and what may arise or come into consciousness has been questioned and questioned. This made guiding athletes during this challenging time a perpetual and repetitive dance with the 6 ACT processes. This short presentation uses examples from working with athletes in preparation for the 2020 Olympics to show how the ACT processes were used and what it means to build real acceptance, readiness, and openness. It showed that the Self-as-Context process is a central link between Values, Acceptance, Present Moment Awareness, Defusion and Committed Action. Sportsperson with strong athletic identities sometimes seem to have ego-boosting obsessions and manifest a strong tendency of self-esteem protection. Relying on performance as source of self-worth is not possible when athletes are not allowed to compete. Working on the Self-as-Context process can reduce absorption in the self (e.g., being focused on a constructed and conceptualized ego), which is also implicit in the practice of mindfulness within a Buddhist context and sometimes forgotten in a more secular and culturally adapted western form of mindfulness. Being able to let go of a problematic conceptualized self can liberate athletes from non-functional attempts to protect their self-esteem and make movements towards a more balanced life even when circumstances restrict a normal way of life.
Background Mental training intends to support athletes in mastering challenges in sport. The aim of our study was to investigate the differential and shared effects of psychological skills training and mindfulness training on psychological variables relevant to athletic performance (e.g., handling emotions or attention control). We assumed that each approach has its own strengths (e.g., mindfulness has a differential effect on the acceptance of emotions), but for some goals (e.g., attention control), both training forms are expected to be equally successful (i.e., shared effects). Methods A total of 95 athletes (Mage = 24.43, SDage = 5.15; 49% female) were randomly assigned into three groups: psychological skills training intervention (PST), mindfulness training intervention (MT), and wait-list control group (WL). Participants completed a questionnaire battery before and after the training (pretest and posttest). We assessed mindfulness, use of mental strategies, handling of emotions, attention in training and competition, as well as the dealing with failure. The two intervention programs each consisted of four 90-min group workshops conducted over a period of 4 weeks. Results Both interventions passed the manipulation check, that is, PST led to more mental strategies being used (probabilities > 95%), and MT led to an increase in two of three aspects of mindfulness (probabilities > 98%) when compared to WL. Compared to WL, both interventions equally improved in the ability to not let emotions interfere with performance (probabilities > 99%) and in controlling attention in training and competition (probabilities > 89%). To a lesser extend, both interventions showed shared improvements in dealing with failure indicated by more action orientation (probabilities > 82%). We found a differential effect of MT on decreased experiential avoidance: MT decreased compared to WL and PST (probabilities > 92%), whereas PST did not differ from WL. Conclusion We conclude that both forms of mental training lead to improvements in performance-relevant psychological factors, especially concerning the handling of emotions and attention control. The results of our study suggest that different paths may lead to the desired outcomes, and accordingly, both forms of mental training seem justified.
In the past few years mindfulness and acceptance based approaches have drawn much attention as suitable interventions in sports and a growing number of sport psychologists are using these methods in their applied work (e.g. Henriksen, Hansen, & Hvid Larsen, 2019). The aim of mindfulness and acceptance based interventions is not to overpower thoughts and emotions by suppression and using control techniques, but to change the relationship to these thoughts and emotions. Participants of this short half an hour workshop will be introduced to the six core processes of Acceptance Commitment Therapy (ACT) to enhance psychological flexibility. They will get to know examples of how to use the six core processes with athletes and experience the six ACT processes through small exercises themselves. Participants will be introduced to the work of teaching athletes to open up, accepting undesired unpleasant cognitions, emotions and sensations and mindfully engage in the present moment to follow their personal values.
The purpose of this chapter was to review self-talk with respect to three contrasting phenomena: mindfulness, flow, and mind wandering. On important lesson learned in the first part of this chapter was that mindfulness may help to detect the nature of organic self-talk and let go of non-functional inner speech. With regards to flow, the discussion focused on the degree to which the signature qualities of flow are in conflict with the deliberate, rational, and cognitively demanding nature of strategic and goal-directed self-talk. In the last section, emphasis was placed on the similarities between the uncontrolled nature of unintentional mind wandering and spontaneous self-talk and the controlled and effortful nature of intentional mind wandering and goal-directed self-talk. Overall, it was concluded that this perspective-taking exercise in this chapter can be acknowledged as being paradigmatic, insofar as it has led to a deeper understanding of self-talk, mindfulness, flow and mind wandering.
This study investigated the effect of a single hypnosis intervention on shooting performance in a 10-meter air rifle competition. Eight shooting athletes from the Swiss national team participated in the experiment; an A-B-A single case study design was used, with 2 baseline measurements. The results suggest that for 3 athletes the hypnosis intervention had a small positive effect on their performance compared to all other measurements, 6 subjects had small improvements compared to 1 baseline measurement, and 2 subjects had a performance decrease. Data from the participants’ subjective rating of the intervention effect and their satisfaction with it demonstrated feasibility and that all subjects experienced the hypnosis intervention as positive. Moreover, they commented that they felt calmer and more focused and self-confident when they began the competition. Therefore, it seems promising for shooting athletes to learn how to integrate hypnosis into their training regimens, but additional research is needed.
Abstract. Mindfulness-based interventions are found beneficial to improving well-being and alleviating symptoms of psychological distress, although accurate measurement of the psychological construct of mindfulness remains a challenge. Theoretical work has highlighted characteristics of mindfulness, which can be assessed comprehensively by the recently developed eight-factor Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences (CHIME). While the instrument has demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties, its ability to discriminate precisely across individual mindfulness levels has not been rigorously investigated. The current study subjected responses of 443 participants to Rasch analysis to investigate and enhance the psychometric properties of the CHIME. The best fit to the Rasch model was achieved for every individual subscale with only minor modifications that involved combining some locally dependent items into a testlet. The total scale was then fitted to the Rasch model with individual subscales treated as testlets, and the best model fit was attained after two correlated subscales were treated as a single testlet, χ2(63) = 70.76, p = .23. Therefore, it was possible to generate ordinal-to-interval conversion tables for individual subscales and the total scale scores, which increase the instrument’s precision. The results support internal construct validity and enhance psychometric properties of the CHIME.
This article provides protocols of a mindfulness and acceptance-based intervention and a psychological skills training intervention. Both consist of four 90-minute group workshops in a time period of one month. All workshops were accompanied with methods that support behavioral change. We considered four principles in the program development to support behavioral change (i.e., supporting processing and learning of the workshop content, strengthening motivation to get involved with the program, promoting regular practice of formal exercises, reactivation of content between workshops). We conclude with evaluating the participants’ feedback on the workshops and by giving advice how practitioners could use these programs.
Motivationstraining bezweckt die systematische Optimierung menschlichen Verhaltens via einer Erhöhung der Handlungsfrequenz, Verbesserung der –persistenz, Steigerung der -Intensität sowie der Verbesserung der Handlungsqualität. Unter Berücksichtigung der Phasen des Rubikon-Modells geschieht dies durch den Einbezug motivationaler Schemata zur Befriedigung psychologischer Grundbedürfnisse, weiterhin durch Werteklärungen, mentalem Kontrastieren, affektivem Vorerleben, systematischer Zielsetzungsarbeit, Implementierungsintentionen, Veränderung des motivationalen Klimas, attributionalem Feedback/ Retraining. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportpsychologie, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Dieter Hackfort, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.
Self-compassion describes a supportive attitude towards oneself. Research outside the sport context suggests that self-compassion might be beneficial in terms of psychological processes that are helpful for athletic performance. At the same time, there are reasons to assume that athletes may fear a negative influence of SC on their self-improvement motivation. Therefore, it seemed worthwhile to clarify the role of self-compassion in the competitive sport setting by reviewing the current research. The aim of this scoping review is to give an overview of the current literature on SC in competitive sports and to answer the question, whether SC is helpful for competitive athletes. A literature search was conducted using PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PSYNDEX, and SPORTDiscus. Eligibility criteria were peer-reviewed publication, publication in English, original research and research investigating self-compassion in competitive athletes. From 17 publications that met the inclusion criteria, we identified 19 studies, most of which were quantitative, employing a cross-sectional design. Additionally, we found only one intervention study, one experimental study and four qualitative studies using interviews. We provided an integrative narrative description of the study aims, hypotheses, methodological characteristics and study results. Based on the reviewed findings we concluded that in the future more intervention and longitudinal studies are needed. Furthermore, a comprehensive theoretical framework should be developed, which explains how SC is beneficial for athletes. Thus far, qualitative studies highlight the potential ambivalence of athletes towards SC (i.e., they expect benefits after failures but fear that too much SC leads to mediocrity). Quantitative research indicates that SC is beneficial for athletes’ well-being and their ability to deal with adversities in sports, whereas the role of self-compassion for self-improvement motivation remains unanswered.
A rigorous training schedule with insufficient recovery can lead to nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) or overtraining syndrome (OTS). Research has suggested the multifactorial etiology of these phenomena. Stressors that contribute to and are symptoms and consequences of NFOR and OTS and adjustment disorder are almost identical. In this case study of an elite rower, the author illustrates an intervention approach that can be taken when overtraining is viewed as a sport-specific form of adjustment disorder. The intervention involved treatment that improved the athlete’s awareness of his basic biopsychosocial processes, developed sources of self-worth beyond athletic performance, and challenged his 1-dimensional athletic identity. The intervention included cognitive-behavioral therapy methods (e.g., autogenic training) and mindfulness- and acceptancebasedinterventions to enhance the athlete’s psychological flexibility.Mood monitoring was used as a diagnostic and evaluative instrument. Intervention effectiveness was evaluated through an in-depth interview with the athlete. The consulting sport psychologist also engaged in reflection about treatment effectiveness and predominant challenges. Challenging the athlete and clarifying his personal values were judged to be very important. Evaluation suggested that viewing NFOR and OTS as forms of adjustment disorder may help us recognize the multifaceted nature of an athlete’s maladjusted state and widen treatment options.
